Review Article

New Concept of Ocular Implications in COVID-19 Infection: A Brief Review

Apen Hoddor Silaban
Lende Moripa Christian Hospital, Indonesia
* Corresponding author
DOI icon 10.24018/ejmed.2021.3.1.630

Read Counter
743

Downloads
535

Citations

Share

Article Sidebar

Submitted 2020-12-24
Published 2021-01-07

Read counter = 743 times

Table of Contents

Article Main Content

Coronavirus disease 2019 is a novel pneumonia-like respiratory disease caused by the infection of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). The virus can invade the human body through various intermediaries, including through the eye. The presence of a coronavirus invasion in the eye may cause several ocular manifestations, which can be an initial clinical finding of a coronavirus infection in the host body. On the other hand, it can also cause systemic complications that may affect the eyes. This review will discuss in more detail how the coronavirus can infect humans through the eye, explain its manifestations, and briefly explain the proper and prompt management steps that must be taken.

Keywords: Coronavirus, eye, infection

References

  1. World Health Organization. (August 2020). Coronavirus Disease (COVID-2019) Situation Report [Online]. Available: https://www.who .int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019/situationreports/
     Google Scholar
  2. World Health Organization. (February 2020). Report of the WHO-China Joint Mission on Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) [Online]. Available: https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/report-of -the-who-china-joint-mission-on-coronavirus-disease-2019-(covid-19)
     Google Scholar
  3. Pan American Health Organization/World Health Organization. (October 2020). Epidemiological alert recurring waves and outbreaks of COVID-19 [Online]. Available: https://www.paho.org/en/docu ments/epidemiological-alert-recurring-waves-and-outbreaks-covid-19
     Google Scholar
  4. J.P.A. Ioannidis, “Global perspective of COVID-19 epidemiology for a full-cycle,” Eur J Clin Invest., vol. 50, pp. 1-9, 2020.
    DOI  |   Google Scholar
  5. X. Xu, P. Chen, J. Wang, et al., “Evolution of the novel coronavirus from the ongoing Wuhan outbreak and modeling of its spike protein for risk of human transmission,” Sci China Life Sci., vol. 63, no. 3, pp. 457-460, 2020.
    DOI  |   Google Scholar
  6. Y. Wang, B. Detrick, Z.X. Yu, et al., “The role of apoptosis within the retina of coronavirus-infected mice,” Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci., vol. 41, pp. 3011-3018, 2000.
     Google Scholar
  7. W.J. Guan, Z.Y. Ni, Y. Hu, et al., “China medical treatment expert group for Covid-19: clinical characteristics of coronavirus disease 2019 in China,” N Engl J Med., vol. 382, pp. 1708-1720, 2020.
    DOI  |   Google Scholar
  8. J.O. Li, D.S.C. Lam, Y. Chen, et al., “Novel coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19): The importance of recognising possible early ocular manifestation and using protective eyewear,” The British Journal of Ophthalmology, vol. 104, no. 3, pp. 297-298, 2020.
    DOI  |   Google Scholar
  9. J. Xia, J. Tong, M. Liu, et al., “Evaluation of coronavirus in tears and conjunctival secretions of patients with SARS-CoV-2 infection,” J Med Virol., vol. 92, no. 6, pp. 589-594, 2020.
    DOI  |   Google Scholar
  10. S. Perlman, “Another decade, another coronavirus,” N Engl J Med., vol. 382, pp. 760-762, 2020.
    DOI  |   Google Scholar
  11. W. Wang, J. Tang, F. Wei, “Updated understanding of the outbreak of 2019 novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) in Wuhan, China,” J Med Virol., vol. 92, no. 4, pp. 441-447, 2020.
    DOI  |   Google Scholar
  12. C. Rothe, M. Schunk, P. Sothmann, et al., “Transmission of 2019-nCoV infection from an asymptomatic contact in Germany,” N Engl J Med., vol. 382, no. 10, pp. 970-971, 2020.
    DOI  |   Google Scholar
  13. A.M. Abdullahi, “Virology and epidemiology of the 2019 coronavirus disease (COVID-19),” J Commn Med Pub Health Rep., vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 1-9, 2020.
    DOI  |   Google Scholar
  14. T.H. Lai, E.W. Tang, S.K. Chau, et al., “Stepping up infection control measures in ophthalmology during the novel coronavirus outbreak: an experience from Hong Kong,” Graefe’s Archive for Clinical and Experimental Ophthalmology, pp. 1-7, 2020.
    DOI  |   Google Scholar
  15. I. Seah, R. Agrawal, “Can the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) affect the eyes? A review of coronaviruses and ocular implications in humans and animals,” Ocul Immunol Inflamm., vol. 28, no. 3, pp. 391-395, 2020.
    DOI  |   Google Scholar
  16. P. Wu, F. Duan, C. Luo, et al., “Characteristics of ocular finding of patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in Hubei Province, China,” JAMA Ophthalmology, vol. 138, no. 5, pp. 575-578, 2020.
    DOI  |   Google Scholar
  17. L. Loffredo, F. Pacella, E. Pacella, et al., “Conjunctivitis and COVID‐19: a meta‐analysis,” J Med Virol., pp. 1-2, 2020.
    DOI  |   Google Scholar
  18. N. Hong, W. Yu, J. Xia, et al., “Evaluation of ocular symptoms and tropism of SARS‐CoV‐2 in patients confirmed with COVID‐19,” Acta Ophthalmol., pp. 1-7, 2020.
    DOI  |   Google Scholar
  19. K. Aggarwal, A. Agarwal, N. Jaiswal, et al., “Ocular surface manifestations of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19): a systematic review and meta-analysis,” PLoS ONE, vol. 15, no. 11, pp. 1-20, 2020.
    DOI  |   Google Scholar
  20. Z.K. Ozturker, “Conjunctivitis as sole symptom of COVID-19: a case report and review of literature,” EJO, pp. 1-6, 2020.
    DOI  |   Google Scholar
  21. K. Hu, J. Patel, B.C. Patel. January 2020. Ophthalmic manifestations of coronavirus (COVID-19). StatPearls (Online). Available https:// www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK556093/
     Google Scholar
  22. V. Navel, F. Chiambaretta, F. Dutheil, “Haemorrhagic conjunctivitis with pseudomembranous related to SARS-CoV-2,” Am J Ophthalmol Case Rep., vol. 19, pp. 1-3, 2020.
     Google Scholar
  23. M. Cheema, H. Aghazadeh, S. Nazarali, et al., “Keratoconjunctivitis as the initial medical presentation of the novel coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19),” Can J Ophthalmol., vol. 55, no. 4, pp. e125-e129, 2020.
    DOI  |   Google Scholar
  24. C.W. Lu, X.F. Liu, Z.F. Jia, “2019-nCoV transmission through the ocular surface must not be ignored,” Lancet, vol. 395, no. 10224, pp. e39, 2020.
    DOI  |   Google Scholar
  25. P. Senanayake, J. Drazba, K. Shadrach, et al., “Angiotensin II and its receptor subtypes in the human retina,” Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci., vol. 48, no. 7, pp. 3301-3311, 2007.
    DOI  |   Google Scholar
  26. S.L.L. Yan, X. Pan, M. Jing, “Mechanism of the action between the SARS-CoV S240 protein and the ACE2 receptor in eyes,” J Virol., vol. 6, pp. 783-786, 2006.
     Google Scholar
  27. B.R.S. Torres, C.E.X. da Cunha, L.R. Castro, et al., “Ocular manifestations of COVID-19: a literature review,” Rev Assoc Med Bras., vol. 66, no. 9, pp. 1296-1300, 2020.
    DOI  |   Google Scholar
  28. American Academy of Ophthalmology. March 2020. Alert: important coronavirus updates for ophthalmologists (Online). Available: www. aao.org/headline/alert-important-coronavirus-context.
     Google Scholar
  29. A. Invernizzi, A. Torre, S. Paruulli, et al., “Retinal findings in patients with COVID-19: result from the SERPICO-19 study,” EClinical Medicine, vol. 27, pp. 1-9, 2020.
    DOI  |   Google Scholar
  30. R.W. Dal Negro, P. Turco, G. Santin, “Ocular venous thrombosis as the main manifestation of an otherwise pauci-symptomatic COVID-19,” Clin Case Rep Int., vol. 4, pp. 1-4, 2020.
     Google Scholar
  31. I. Hammin, W. Timens, M.L.C. Bulthuis, et al., “Tissue distribution of ACE2 protein, the functional receptor for SARS coronavirus: a first step in understanding SARS pathogenesis,” J Pathol., vol. 203, no. 2, pp. 631-637, 2020.
    DOI  |   Google Scholar
  32. J.F. Riordan, “Angiotensin-I-converting enzyme and its relatives,” Genome Biology, pp. 225, 2003.
    DOI  |   Google Scholar
  33. M. Hoffman, H. Kleine-Weber, S. Schroeder, et al., “SARS-CoV-2 cell entry depends on ACE2 and TMPRSS2 and is blocked by a clinically proven protease inhibitor,” Cell, vol.181, no. 2, pp. 271-278, 2020.
    DOI  |   Google Scholar
  34. Y. Sun, L. Liu, X. Pan, et al., “Mechanism of the action between the SARS-CoV S240 protein and the ACE2 receptor in eyes,” Int J Ophthalmol., vol. 6, no. 4, pp. 783-786, 2006.
     Google Scholar
  35. A. Milewska, P. Nowak, K. Owczarek, et al., “Entry of human coronavirus NL63 into the cell,” J Virol., vol. 92, no. 3, pp. e01933-17, 2018.
    DOI  |   Google Scholar
  36. F. Colavita, D. Lapa, F. Carletti, et al., “SARS-CoV-2 isolation from ocular secretions of a patient with COVID-19 in Italy with prolonged viral RNA detection,” Ann Intern Med., pp. 1-3, 2020.
    DOI  |   Google Scholar
  37. Y. Zhong, K. Wang, Y. Zhu, et al., “COVID-19 and the eye”, Journal of Infection, pp. 122-123, 2020.
    DOI  |   Google Scholar
  38. Y. Zhou, Y. Zeng, Y. Tong, et al., “Ophthalmologic evidence against the interpersonal transmission of 2019 novel coronavirus through conjunctiva,” MedRxiv, pp. 1-16, 2020.
    DOI  |   Google Scholar
  39. X. Zhang, X. Chen, L. Chen, et al., “The infection evidence of SARS-COV-2 in ocular surface: a single-center cross-sectional study,” MedRxiv, pp. 1-12, 2020.
    DOI  |   Google Scholar
  40. Z.A. Memish, J.A. Al-Tawfiq, H.Q. Makhdoom, et al., “Respiratory tract samples, viral load, and genome fraction yield in patients with Middle East respiratory syndrome,” J Infect Dis. Vol. 210, no. 10, pp. 1590-1594, 2014.
    DOI  |   Google Scholar
  41. US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. December 2020. Interim guidelines for collecting, handling, and testing clinical specimens from persons under investigation (PUIs) for coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) (Online). Available: https://www.cdc. gov/coronavirus/2019-nCoV/lab/guidelinesclinicalspecimens.html.
     Google Scholar
  42. P. Sarma, H. Kaur, H. Kumar, et al., “Virological and clinical cure in Covid-19 patients treated with hydroxychloroquine: a systematic review and meta-analysis,” J Med Virol., vol. 92, pp. 776-785, 2020.
    DOI  |   Google Scholar
  43. M. Marmor, U. Kellner, T.Y. Lai, et al., “Recommendations on screening for chloroquine and hydroxy-chloroquine retinopathy (2016 revision),” Ophthalmology, vol. 123, no. 6, pp. 1386-1394, 2016.
    DOI  |   Google Scholar
  44. The Center of Evidence-Based Medicine. April 2020. Lopinavir/ritonavir: a rapid review of effectiveness in COVID-19 (Online). Available: https://www.cebm.net/covid-19/lopinavir-ritonavir-a-rapid-review-of-the-evidence-for-effectiveness-in-treating-covid/.
     Google Scholar
  45. D.M. Varu, M.K. Rhee, E.K. Akpek, et al., “Conjunctivitis Preferred Practice Pattern,” Ophthalmology, pp. 94-169, 2019.
    DOI  |   Google Scholar
  46. R. Shetty, A. Ghosh, S.G. Honavar, et al., “Therapeutic opportunities to manage COVID‑19/SARS‑CoV‑2 infection: present and future,” Indian J Ophthalmol., vol.68, pp. 693-702, 2020.
    DOI  |   Google Scholar
  47. M. Day, “Covid‑19: Ibuprofen should not be used for managing symptoms, say doctors and scientists,” BMJ, pp. 368:m1086, 2020.
    DOI  |   Google Scholar
  48. A. Bhavsar, S. Bhavsar, S. Jain, “Evaluation of the effects of chloroquine phosphate eye drops in patients with dry eye syndrome,” Int J Biomed Adv Res, vol. 2, pp. 198‑214, 2011.
    DOI  |   Google Scholar
  49. V. Navel, F. Chiambaretta, F. Dutheil, “Haemorrhagic conjunctivitis with pseudomembranous related to SARS-CoV-2,” American Journal of Ophthalmology Case Reports, vol. 19, pp. 1-4, 2020.
    DOI  |   Google Scholar